{
 "paper": "gadeke-2026-guilt-insula",
 "model": "supplied:runs/gadeke-2026-guilt-insula/plain-claim.answer.json",
 "prompt": "extract/prompts/plain-claim.md",
 "claims": [
  {
   "slug": "alt-agency-aversion-not-guilt",
   "role": "hypothesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Being the decision-maker is unpleasant in itself, whether or not the partner ends up worse off."
  },
  {
   "slug": "alt-guilt-effect-driven-by-own-outcome",
   "role": "hypothesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The drop in happiness after a partner's bad outcome is disappointment at the participant's own outcome, not guilt."
  },
  {
   "slug": "alt-imaging-contrast-invalid",
   "role": "hypothesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The imaging pipeline fails to recover known effects, so the Social-Partner differences cannot be credited to the manipulation."
  },
  {
   "slug": "alt-model-based-glm-invalid",
   "role": "hypothesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The model-based fMRI approach recovers no known neural signals, so regressors from the computational model cannot be trusted."
  },
  {
   "slug": "alt-participants-insensitive-to-value",
   "role": "hypothesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Participants chose inattentively or at random, so their choices say nothing about what they preferred or felt."
  },
  {
   "slug": "alt-social-context-shifts-risk-attitude",
   "role": "hypothesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Choosing for someone else changes how much risk people accept, and that, not guilt, explains the differences between conditions."
  },
  {
   "slug": "among-computational-models-fitted-momentary",
   "role": "methodological",
   "panel": "table1",
   "plain": "On one fit measure, the Responsibility Redux model fitted momentary happiness best in both studies."
  },
  {
   "slug": "anterior-insula-neural-substrate-guilt",
   "role": "hypothesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The anterior insula carries the guilt effect, responding more when the participant is responsible for the partner's bad outcome."
  },
  {
   "slug": "anterior-insula-tracks-guilt-insula",
   "role": "prediction",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The anterior insula should respond more in the Social than the Partner condition, and most strongly after low outcomes."
  },
  {
   "slug": "authors-suggest-left-sts-region",
   "role": "interpretation",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The left superior temporal sulcus tracks a partner's surprising outcomes less when the participant did not cause them."
  },
  {
   "slug": "behavioural-guilt-effect-larger-happiness",
   "role": "interpretation",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The larger drop in happiness after a partner's bad outcome that the participant caused fits the idea of simple guilt."
  },
  {
   "slug": "bilateral-ventral-striatum-more-active",
   "role": "control",
   "panel": "fig4a",
   "plain": "The ventral striatum on both sides was more active when participants chose the risky option, in every condition, as found before."
  },
  {
   "slug": "both-studies-participants-felt-worse",
   "role": "synthesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "In both studies participants felt worse after a partner's bad outcome they had chosen, which the authors read as guilt."
  },
  {
   "slug": "connectivity-between-guilt-responsibility-related-outcome-ph",
   "role": "prediction",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Connectivity from the left insula and left superior temporal sulcus to prefrontal cortex should depend on condition and choice."
  },
  {
   "slug": "connectivity-between-left-anterior-insula",
   "role": "interpretation",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The right inferior frontal gyrus, in its coupling with the left anterior insula, is sensitive to guilt during social choices."
  },
  {
   "slug": "decisions-social-compared-solo-condition",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig4b",
   "plain": "Deciding for both players rather than alone engaged the precuneus, left temporo-parietal junction and medial prefrontal cortex."
  },
  {
   "slug": "difference-response-between-low-high",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "app1table10",
   "plain": "The gap between low and high outcome responses was larger in the Social condition in both insulae and middle temporal cortex."
  },
  {
   "slug": "dot-products-between-individual-neural",
   "role": "control",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Individual neural guilt responses matched a previously published guilt brain signature, converging with earlier work."
  },
  {
   "slug": "during-outcome-phase-responses-low",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "app1table9",
   "plain": "At outcome both insulae responded more, and right middle temporal cortex less, to low outcomes in Social than Partner trials."
  },
  {
   "slug": "during-receipt-lottery-versus-safe",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig4d",
   "plain": "Lottery rather than safe outcomes engaged the anterior insula, ventral striatum, dmPFC, right STS and frontoparietal cortex."
  },
  {
   "slug": "each-trial-participants-chose-between",
   "role": "scope",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "On each trial participants chose between a safe and a risky option, for themselves, for both players, or the partner chose."
  },
  {
   "slug": "findings-rest-two-samples-healthy",
   "role": "scope",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The findings rest on two samples of healthy adults, one behavioural and one scanned, with all brain results from the scanner."
  },
  {
   "slug": "functional-connectivity-between-guilt-responsibility-related",
   "role": "hypothesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Coupling between the guilt- and responsibility-related regions and prefrontal cortex changes with who decides and what is chosen."
  },
  {
   "slug": "functional-connectivity-between-left-anterior",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig5",
   "plain": "Left anterior insula coupling with the right inferior frontal gyrus was strongest for risky self choices and safe joint choices."
  },
  {
   "slug": "guilt-effect-occurred-whether-participant",
   "role": "control",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The guilt effect held whether the participant's own lottery outcome was high or low."
  },
  {
   "slug": "hold-partner-behaviour-constant-across",
   "role": "methodological",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The partner's choices were simulated by an algorithm always taking the highest expected value, the same for every participant."
  },
  {
   "slug": "individual-grbs-dot-product-values-not",
   "role": "control",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The neural guilt signature did not track how strongly individual participants showed the behavioural guilt effect."
  },
  {
   "slug": "insula-rois-responded-more-low",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig4e",
   "plain": "The insula responded more to a partner's low outcome when the participant had chosen, mirroring the behavioural guilt effect."
  },
  {
   "slug": "left-ifg-cluster-showed-opposite",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig5s1",
   "plain": "A left inferior frontal gyrus cluster showed the opposite coupling pattern with the left STS seed, but did not survive correction."
  },
  {
   "slug": "left-ifg-insula-connectivity-subthreshold",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig5",
   "plain": "A smaller left inferior frontal gyrus cluster showed the same insula coupling pattern as the right, but did not survive correction."
  },
  {
   "slug": "left-superior-temporal-sulcus-cluster",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig4i",
   "plain": "The left superior temporal sulcus tracked the participant's reward predictions from both participant and partner choices."
  },
  {
   "slug": "likelihood-ratio-test-showed-responsibility",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "table1",
   "plain": "The Responsibility model fitted the happiness data better than every other model, including Responsibility Redux."
  },
  {
   "slug": "linear-mixed-model-containing-all",
   "role": "methodological",
   "panel": "app1table2",
   "plain": "The happiness model with all three two-way interactions fitted better than simpler models and no worse than the fullest one."
  },
  {
   "slug": "lower-happiness-when-participant-decision-maker",
   "role": "interpretation",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Being the decision-maker may itself cost happiness, a weight of responsibility."
  },
  {
   "slug": "manipulation-check-bilateral-ventral-striatum",
   "role": "control",
   "panel": "fig4g",
   "plain": "As a check, ventral striatum activity on both sides rose with the rewards participants expected from their chosen option."
  },
  {
   "slug": "mass-univariate-voxel-wise-analysis-found-small",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig4f",
   "plain": "A small left anterior insula cluster responded more to a partner's low outcome after the participant's own choice."
  },
  {
   "slug": "mixed-effects-regressions-choices-social-condition",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "app1table1",
   "plain": "Choosing for both players raised the rate of risky choices in the first study but not in the second."
  },
  {
   "slug": "model-based-glm-entered-best-fitting-computational",
   "role": "methodological",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "A model-based analysis used the fitted model's reward and prediction-error terms to locate the brain regions reflecting them."
  },
  {
   "slug": "model-selection-among-happiness-models",
   "role": "methodological",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Model selection compared the Responsibility model against each rival model in turn, alongside the usual fit criteria."
  },
  {
   "slug": "momentary-happiness-modelled-five-computational",
   "role": "methodological",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Momentary happiness was fitted with five computational models sharing decaying terms for rewards, expectations and surprises."
  },
  {
   "slug": "neural-substrate-tracks-participant-responsibility-2",
   "role": "prediction",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Regions sensitive to risky outcomes should respond more to a partner's reward surprises when the participant caused them."
  },
  {
   "slug": "neural-substrate-tracks-participant-responsibility",
   "role": "hypothesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "A brain region tracks responsibility, representing a partner's reward surprises more strongly when the participant chose."
  },
  {
   "slug": "no-significant-interaction-between-difference",
   "role": "control",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Sensitivity to the value difference between the options did not change across conditions in either study."
  },
  {
   "slug": "one-cluster-left-sts-responded",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig4h",
   "plain": "A left superior temporal sulcus cluster responded more to the partner's reward surprises after the participant's own choices."
  },
  {
   "slug": "only-precuneus-tpj-showed-positive",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig4c",
   "plain": "Only the precuneus and temporo-parietal junction were most active when participants chose the lottery for both players."
  },
  {
   "slug": "parameter-recovery-procedure-synthetic-data-generated",
   "role": "methodological",
   "panel": "fig3s1",
   "plain": "Fitting the happiness model to simulated data recovered its parameters reliably, showing the estimates are stable."
  },
  {
   "slug": "participant-happiness-lower-when-participant",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Participants were less happy when they were the one deciding, whatever the outcome."
  },
  {
   "slug": "participant-momentary-happiness-varied-rewards-2",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig3b,fig3f",
   "plain": "Among the influences on momentary happiness is the reward the partner received on the current trial."
  },
  {
   "slug": "participant-momentary-happiness-varied-rewards",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig3a,fig3e",
   "plain": "Among the influences on momentary happiness is the reward the participant received on the current trial."
  },
  {
   "slug": "participants-chose-risky-option-lottery",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig2a,fig2d",
   "plain": "One measure of risk taking, how often the lottery was chosen, was higher deciding alone than for both, in the first study only."
  },
  {
   "slug": "participants-own-reward-prediction-errors",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Participants' own reward surprises shaped their happiness more than their partner's did."
  },
  {
   "slug": "participants-probability-choosing-risky-option",
   "role": "control",
   "panel": "fig2a,fig2d",
   "plain": "Participants chose the lottery more often the more its expected value exceeded the safe option."
  },
  {
   "slug": "participants-showed-very-similar-risk",
   "role": "synthesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Risk preferences were much the same whether deciding alone or for both players, with only a hint of extra caution for both."
  },
  {
   "slug": "participants-slightly-more-risk-averse",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig2c,fig2f",
   "plain": "A second risk measure, the fitted risk-aversion parameter, was slightly higher deciding for both than alone in Study 1 only."
  },
  {
   "slug": "partner-reward-prediction-errors-resulting",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "The partner's reward surprises that followed the participant's own choices helped explain the participant's momentary happiness."
  },
  {
   "slug": "pre-task-icebreaker-succeeded-establishing-positive",
   "role": "control",
   "panel": "app1table11",
   "plain": "A pre-task icebreaker left participants rating their partners highly on every likeability measure in both studies."
  },
  {
   "slug": "prior-functional-connectivity-work-shown",
   "role": "literature-context",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Earlier connectivity work linked social choice, guilt compensation and responsibility aversion to distinct network interactions."
  },
  {
   "slug": "prior-literature-documents-association-between",
   "role": "literature-context",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Earlier work links the anterior insula to guilt."
  },
  {
   "slug": "responsibility-choices-not-influence-happiness",
   "role": "control",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Responsibility made no difference to happiness after good outcomes for the partner, bounding the effect to bad ones."
  },
  {
   "slug": "responsibility-model-yielded-higher-values",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "table1",
   "plain": "On explained variance, the Responsibility model beat every rival except the Guilt-envy model in the first study."
  },
  {
   "slug": "responsibility-outcomes-generates-guilt-participant",
   "role": "prediction",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Happiness should fall further after a partner's low outcome when the participant rather than the partner chose the lottery."
  },
  {
   "slug": "responsibility-partner-outcomes-influences-participant",
   "role": "prediction",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "A happiness model including the partner's surprises from the participant's own choices should fit better than models without them."
  },
  {
   "slug": "responsibility-redux-model-incorporating-expected",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig3c,fig3g",
   "plain": "The Responsibility Redux model, built from both players' rewards, surprises and who decided, predicted momentary happiness well."
  },
  {
   "slug": "responsibility-social-choice-yields-low",
   "role": "hypothesis",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Responsibility for a choice that leaves a partner worse off produces guilt, felt as a sharper drop in the chooser's happiness."
  },
  {
   "slug": "risk-aversion-parameter-not-differ-between",
   "role": "control",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Risk aversion was the same on gain and loss trials, so the two could be pooled."
  },
  {
   "slug": "risk-premiums-not-differ-between",
   "role": "control",
   "panel": "fig2b,fig2e",
   "plain": "A third risk measure, the risk premium, was the same whether participants decided alone or for both players."
  },
  {
   "slug": "rutledge-colleagues-established-changes-momentary",
   "role": "literature-context",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Earlier work established that momentary happiness in a reward task follows recent expectations and the surprises against them."
  },
  {
   "slug": "social-vs-partner-roi-risky-safe-coefficients",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "app1table6",
   "plain": "Set against the partner deciding, choosing the lottery raised the response in precuneus, mPFC and left TPJ and lowered it in ventral striatum."
  },
  {
   "slug": "social-vs-solo-roi-risky-safe-coefficients",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "app1table5",
   "plain": "Set against deciding alone, choosing the lottery raised the response in precuneus and left TPJ and lowered it in ventral striatum and mPFC."
  },
  {
   "slug": "study-reproduced-study-design-inside",
   "role": "scope",
   "panel": "",
   "plain": "Study 2 repeated the Study 1 design in the scanner, with longer gaps between trials and experimenters as partners."
  },
  {
   "slug": "when-partner-received-low-lottery",
   "role": "empirical",
   "panel": "fig3d,fig3h",
   "plain": "After a partner's low outcome, participants were less happy when they rather than the partner had chosen the lottery."
  }
 ]
}